Chapter  4  The Teaching of Aesthetics In Civic Education

The Teaching of Aesthetics in Civic Education

The subject  of aesthetic education  has been previously elaborated upon in the first part  of the book by the authors of  of CIVITAS.  To summarize,  we will  begin by saying that civic education68 contains  civic commitments and dispositions.  That is it is up to the education system to develop the civic  morals of the students in  order to enable them, in the  spirit of W. Kymlicka and  W. Norman, to become active  and lawful  citizens to  the best  of their abilities with respect to their subjective conditions.
First,  let  us  very  briefly  summarize  the  previous chapters.  In  the  first  and  third  parts  of this work we mentioned  the  aims  of  multicultural  education.  Here, we indicated that it is insufficient for the education system to teach  tolerance of  other cultures.  Instead, the  education system must encourage the  development of multicultural sight and  feeling in  order to  develop a  cultural empathy.  This cultural  empathy  (that  is,  an  ability  to appreciate the values  of  different  cultures)  strongly  supports critical multiculturalism (P.  McLaren) which includes  the ability to understand sociohistorical particularities  of other cultures as  well as  ones own.  In the  second part  of this  work we defined the main aims of non-classical aesthetic education as the  development of  critical  thinking  and feeling  and the stimulation of flexibility of  aesthetic taste which leads to tolerance and empathy.
This brief recapitulation is  necessary as a springboard for  the  following  considerations  about  the  relationship between  aesthetic education  and arts  education on  the one hand to civic education on the other.
At this point, we want  to clarify another aspect of the cultural dimension  of civic education.  We believe that  the cultural dimension  of modern civic education  can and must69 adopt a completely different meaning and content. That is, it cannot  restrict  itself  to  the  development  of  a  casual knowledge  of  the  political  life  of  the community. Louis Arnaud  Reid  mentions  that  there  exists  today  a general opinion  that  human  thought  cannot  be  separated from its linguistic  expression.   Along  these  lines,   many  modern pedagogical   systems   can   be   criticised  as  preferring a discursive education based on  abstract thought70 which, in the  end,  reduces  the  spiritual  wealth  of  humankind and restricts  it  to  operating  in  only  one  dimension of its collective psyche. This type  of pedagogical system considers less  important  and  subsidiary  the  development of certain parts of  the human consciousness  such as feeling,  fantasy, dreams,  etc. Such  an approach  does not  correspond to  the character of  the present world71 which,  on the contrary, is experiencing a  revival of extrarational  and extradiscursive stirs in the human psyche.
Similar thoughts  are developed by Harry  S. Broudy who, in  his book  entitled The  Uses of  Schooling, outlines four aspects of inefficient and efficient methods of teaching:
a) Replicative criterion: the student  repeats what he or she has  learned in  different  types  of examinations.  This is, according to H.S. Broudy, a non-effective criterion. Research has  clearly  shown  that  much   of  what  is  memorised  is forgotten.
b)  Applicative criterion:  the  student  applies his  or her general   theoretical   knowledge   in   actual  or  concrete situations. This criterion is also  inadequate as it can lead to the  neglect of general  education (which is  difficult to apply in practical terms) and  leads to the overpreference of a system of narrow specialisation in education.
c)  Associative   use  of  schooling:   the  student  creates associations  and analogies  with  respect  to what  has been learned. This is a  very effective criterion that accompanies the process of learning.
d)   Interpretative  use   of  schooling:   in  the   act  of interpretation, the student translates from one concrete sign system to another. This is effective, according to Broudy, as it  allows  the  student  to   use  many  dimensions  of  his psychological thought  process in the adaptation  of his view of things into another system. To a considerable extent, this involves an  aesthetic interpretation as it  is also realized by  means  of  pictures  (signs)  using  sensual  perception, imagination and other psychological tools.72
Harry  S. Broudy  further  elaborates  on yet  third and fourth  types  of  teaching  systems  that should incorporate "a  complex  of  images,  concepts,  memories  of  all  sorts available to provide meaning  to words and events."73 Without this dimension, Broudy states that teaching is reduced merely to a  differentiation between words. Our  methods of teaching rely substantially on  association and interpretation. Broudy promotes a  close affiliation or  unity of feeling,  concept, and  leadership in  order to  play an  important role  in the human  process  behind  teaching,   thus  creating  a  strong aesthetic  character in  the student.  On the  basis of  this information  we,  together  with  the above-mentioned author, claim  that  to  the  basic  elements  of  education (such as reading, writing and arithmetic) must be added art or, at the very  least, aesthetic  education.  The  addition of  art and aesthetics,  (that is,  aesthetic perception)74  to aesthetic education is extremely important, as its aim would be to help form the human psyche. The  necessity of a tight link between aesthetic  and civic  education is  strengthened by  the fact that multicultural education is  very closely related to each of these areas with respect  to its relationship to aesthetic values.
There are some key words that will help us to understand the above-mentioned link. Those  terms that correspond to key words  of  civic  education  or  multicultural education were mentioned in the third section.  From these key words, we can surmise  that   aesthetics  are  linked  to   the  themes  of multicultural or civic education.

art			fashion			play
authenticity		humanism		radio
beauty			information		school system
civilization		language		self-expression
communication		life-style		standard
conflict			manipulation		stereotypes
craft			mass culture		subcultures
cultural tradition	modern			taste
culture			national culture		values
dance			originality		work
design			personal

Key  words for aesthetic education
advertisement			art function
aesthete			art market
aesthetic			art material
aesthetic activity		art style
aesthetic categories		artifact
aesthetic consciousness	artist
aesthetic distance		artistic beauty
aesthetic education		artistic culture
aesthetic experience		artistic tools
aesthetic function		artistic tradition
aesthetic ideal			artistic value
aesthetic judgement		artist s intention
aesthetic need			arts and crafts
aesthetic norm			artwork
aesthetic object			audience
aesthetic opinion		audiovisual arts
aesthetic perception		authenticity
aesthetic relation		author
aesthetic subject		automatism
aesthetic value			beauty
aesthetics			beauty of artifacts
aesthetization			canon
architecture			catharsis
art				civilization
art critics			classic
art direction			collective arts
comic				education through arts
comic strips			empathy
commertionalization		entertainment
commonplace			environment
communication			ethical beauty
composition			etiquette
conflict				evaluation
content				expression
convention			expression of a culture
craft				fashion
creation			film
creative process in art		film education
creativity			fine arts
cultivated			form
cultural artifact			functionalism
cultural needs			genre
cultural tradition		goals of art
cultural value			grace
culture				graphics
culture industry			harmony
culture of an epoch		humanism
custom				humor
dance				ideal
decoration			illusion
decorative arts			imagination
deformation			imitation
design				information
ecology				interpretation
education in plastic arts		introductory emotion
intuition				personal style
kinds of art			personality
Kitsch				phantasy
language			physical education
life-style			picture
literary education		plastic arts
literature			play
manipulation			pleasant
man’s beauty			poetry
mass communication		pornography
mass culture			practical
mass media			preschool education
meaning			propaganda
meaning			provocation
means of expression		psychic distance
metaphor			radio
modern				refreshed view
music				representation
music education		reproduction
national culture			rhythm
natural beauty			scenic art
nice				school system
originality			self-expression
ornament			sensibility
panaesthetism			sign
pantomime			sincere
pattern				snobbery
percipient			spreading of culture
personal culture		standard
standardization of consciousness	to like
stereotype			tragic
style				typicality
style of expression		understandable
subcultures			use function
sublime			use value
symbol				usefulness
taste				valuable
television			value hierarchy
television art			values
theatre				work

We could certainly single out other key words. However, as seen in the key words located in the first section, we can find many cases of overlap between aesthetic education and civic education  either  directly  or  through multicultural education. Overlaps concerning the themes are important for the following:
a) personal relationships between  an individual and society: values, personal, self-expression, taste, life-style.
b) his  position in society:  authenticity, values, language, communication,  conflict,  originality,  work, school-system, information, lifestyle.
c) wider social context: civilization, humanism, manipulation
d)  wider cultural  contexts: design,  play, beauty, culture, cultural   tradition,   mass-culture,   fashion,   modernity, national  culture,  radio,  style,  stereotype,  subcultures, standard, style, dance-art,  art, symbol, originality, craft, sign, dance.
It is clear that we will find most overlaps in the wider cultural contexts  because aesthetic education  is also found and used  in culture. However, if  we take into consideration the very narrow contexts of multicultural and civic education then aesthetic education can, through its narrow relationship to   multicultural   education,   also   overlap  into  civic education. In particular, we  can also notice direct overlaps from   aesthetic   education    into   civic   education--eg. manipulation, work, educational system, lifestyle and others. It is  important to remember  the opinions of  H.S. Broudy on the important role of aesthetic  perception in the process of education  and  we  can  without  doubt  claim that aesthetic education,75 in an important way, overlaps into the education of the  mature and responsible  citizens. According to  these facts  the cultural  dimension  of  civic education  does not signify  something outside  political or  economic education. Rather,  it can  and should  be an  inseparable part of civic education.76

Aesthetic Education: Education Towards Cultural Refinement

In   order   to   illustrate   our  considerations  more concretely, we  will now create a  model situation by looking more specifically  at examples that  include art, aesthetics, and aesthetic  education in such areas  of civic education as education towards cultural  refinement77 or education towards a more general humanistic sensibility. We will concentrate on this area  in order to obtain  a concrete view of  themes and proceedings from which we can  clarify and develop our vision of a cultural dimension. As  a model situation we will choose the  teaching  of  aesthetic  education  in  universities and academies.  The choice  of such  a model  situation has  been influenced by  two facts: the  first is the  fact that little literature  exists  that  discusses  aesthetic  education. In fact,  the  majority  of  theoretic  literature  about  civic education is oriented towards lower levels of school systems. Although it is true that the foundations of civic virtues are laid at this level, we cannot stop teaching these subjects or restrict  ourselves to  teaching them  to a  lesser extent at higher  levels. The  second  reason  for choosing  this model situation is  based on the  rich personal experiences  of the author in this area of education.
We will  not consider all  aims and intentions  of civic education  but will  restrict ourselves  to one  of its aims: a quality  or  type  of  education  for  students, for future citizens, that will lead to both their acculturization and to an increase in their humanistic sensibilities. Obviously each institute  of learning  must decide  which form  of aesthetic education (and of aesthetics78) coincides with the particular disciplines taught within its walls. Aesthetic education must correspond to a specific type  of school and subject area. At the same  time, it can employ  methods and forms used  at the university  level.  Only  then  can  aesthetic  education, in cooperation  with   civic  education,  fulfill   itself.  The situation is considerably complicated  because of the variety of types and  forms of aesthetic education. As  a result, the various approaches to the teaching  of aesthetics will not be our starting point. Rather, the starting point should respect the curricula  of universities and the  career-goals of their students. We  will deal with the  preparation of the students towards the humanities and non-humanities--that is, technical and  economical subjects.  Furthermore, each  university must clearly demonstrate  to the student what  exactly is entailed in his area  of study, what goals are to  be achieved in this area of study, etc.

The Humanistically-educated Classes

One of  the aims of  humanistic faculties79 is  to prepare students  for  research  or  practical  work oriented towards pedagogical or cultural spheres. For aesthetic education this means that universities or faculties cultivate researchers in the field of aesthetics or culture with a special emphasis on aesthetic education  or various professions  in which contact with  aesthetics  occurs  on  a  daily  basis. Again, we will reserve our discussion to the  use of aesthetic education for the  preparation of  specialists in  the humanities.  In this kind of  preparation, aesthetic education can  also be viewed as a practical subject with practical consequences - that is, the abilities  of graduates of  the humanities to  understand and evaluate  artistic or cultural phenomena  around them and their   ability  to   know  and   understand  world  culture. Furthermore,  aesthetic  education  helps  students "to adapt effectively to  existing culture and to  create an active and creative  relationship  with   their  reality."80  The  basic knowledge  which students  of aesthetic  education could gain includes information about the  structure and function of the arts and  culture with emphasis  on the relationship  between culture and human activity in  order for graduates to be able to  understand   the  significance  of   cultural  activities relevant  to  their  surroundings.  Aesthetic  education also cultivates the  ability to orient  oneself in the  spheres of culture and art without problems  or awkwardness in the sense that graduates of the humanities who are employed in areas in which they  use their education become  an important cultural and   aesthetic-educational   factor.   The   above-mentioned abilities and  skills together serve  to develop yet  another ability:  by means  of cultural  education it  is possible to promote  in students  an  understanding  of another  world of ideas,  emotions  and  feelings:  "aesthetics  and ethics are linked because  both are instances  of "discerning humanity." Appreciating another  person as a person  is about discerning their humanity against the  natural disposition to see others as objects."81 Cultural or  aesthetic education also provides an avenue  towards the promotion and  development of artistic feeling in  the humanistically- educated classes.  A deep and enlightened relationship to artistic  and cultural values can result   in  an   understanding  of   various  cultures,   of heterogeneous  human desires,  needs, ideas  and experiences. From an understanding of  the connections between culture and human activity  comes the acceptance  of cultural differences with an attitude of tolerance and respect.
This,  in  fact,  should  be  the  final  result  of the teaching   of   aesthetic   education   at  universities  and academies. It begins with a  simple understanding of the arts and  proceeds,  through  cultural  education,  to  a  general humanistic education.  Aesthetic education is  presented here as an aim  and means: the students in  this area of education should learn to take culture  into consideration and this, in turn, should lead them to  a deeper appreciation of the human race. Aesthetic  education develops in  them an understanding of human  beings as unique creatures  equipped with their own values. This is a fundamental contribution to the development of the civic virtues of the students. Due to the fact that we are speaking of graduates of  the humanities who will work in areas  of  culture,  they  cannot  exist  without  a concrete theoretical knowledge  of the arts and  culture. In this way, the  study  at  university  level  of  discursive or abstract thought  regarding  culture  is  important.  It  must involve methods   which   present   information   about  culture  and aesthetics in general. First of  all, it refers to the future specialists in the Fine Arts  like art critics. Their studies are oriented first on  the acquisition of knowledge regarding culture and  art with respect  to universal knowledge  of art and beauty. This serves to develop  at least two areas of the personality: first, it develops  the ability of philosophical thought  to   develop  theoretical  ideas   about  culture.82 Secondly, it develops the  ability to think critically. Here, aesthetic education becomes the object of study and the whole teaching process is closely linked with philosophy. This type of study  develops in students  a multidimensional (from  the empirical to  the universal) understanding  of the world  and society  as  a  complex  of  characters.  The main purpose of philosophical thought is to  reveal universal regularities in human activities.
The following type of aesthetic  study does not exist in practical terms  in Slovakia, while  in Anglo-Saxon countries it is currently being  developed: the education of thinkers83 whose  aim  is  not  to  build  a  culture  as  the system of objectively  valid,  eternal   and  causally  linked  values. Rather,  their aim  is to  understand culture  as a  changing complex of values, as well as to reflect on the status of the human  being in  the world,  his relationship  with different values, different communities, etc.  Such a reflection of the status  of the  human being  in the  world reflects the world from the specific sociocultural  perspective of the observer. Culture serves  as a means  through which these  thinkers can become oriented  in the world.  Culture helps them  to create their moral, civic, etc.
The  aesthetic-educational preparation  of such students should  begin  with  a  general  study  of  art together with a general history  of culture as  a material basis  for their understanding of  the world. Seeing  as they will  eventually reflect  on  current  sociopsychological  situations of human beings  and culture,  they must  be provided  with a concrete knowledge of general social psychology. Moreover, a developed sense of understanding art  and aesthetic values is important if we  want sensitively to evaluate  the deeply human aspects and consequences  of different forms  of art, aesthetics  and cultural values. Finally, it is important for them to develop a sense  of  understanding  of  current  problems  of  period culture  and national  culture where  new views  of the human being in the world can arise.
The cultural education of the student at universities or academies can,  to a certain extent,  be completed during his studies.  However,   he  should  already   be  equipped  with a certain amount  of knowledge regarding  cultural values and sensibility before  beginning his studies  at this level.  Of course,  it   is  also  possible  to   form  in  students  an understanding and  feeling of new  cultures but the  student, during  his stay  at the  university, should  be at a certain level of  psychological development in  that his flexibility, taste  and aesthetic  perception is  more or  less mature and complete.84  Such  a  study  develops  in  the  students  the understanding of the world as full of complex human meanings, along with an  understanding of a human being  as a universal and  active  being  for  whom  nature  and  the world are not enemies  who must  be humiliated  but are  friends helping to create a home for one another.85
The  starting  point  can  be  the  study  of  programme aesthetics86 together with a knowledge of the general history of art and a profound knowledge  of the history of a specific type  of  art.  Also,  a  knowledge  of  the  history  of the theoretical reflection  of culture is  important in order  to enable the student to understand the relationship between the development   of   a   culture    and   of   its   discursive generalization.
A knowledge  of the history  and the ability  to reflect are fundamentally  important in order for  the student to see the relationship  between the development  of culture and  of its  discursive generalization.  Particular emphasis  must be placed on the knowledge of the present cultural situation, as the programme directives are possible only in the instance of a direct link  between the current  position and relationship between art  and culture. An important  component is also the structure  and  function  of  the  present cultural situation which  includes the  structures of  artistic culture  and the functioning of the means of mass communication as well as the knowledge of the processes of artistic creation. The students knowledge in this  case is not sufficient enough  to make him an active  citizen. In order  to become an  active citizen he needs a proper educational  formation that deal with cultural structures--ie.  that  will  penetrate  into  the ateliers of painters, that will take part in  a drama program, a TV play, that  will   have  a  working  knowledge   of  the  rules  of journalists,   editors   and   publishers.   He   should   be stylistically prepared  for this kind of  work. Its necessary to develop in  the student a deep sensitivity  for a concrete sphere of  cultural production such  as dancing, journalistic experience, etc.  In order to develop  this type of knowledge one must be familiar with the basics of axiology (the ability to estimate concrete ways  in which different values function in culture.)  Such an education prepares  future citizens for something besides  their future careers--it  prepares them to work as  cultural workers. To such  knowledge must belong the following:   an   introduction   to   social   sciences  like psychology,  (including  general,  social  and  developmental psychologies)  because the  student will  certainly work with people.  Secondly,  one  needs  an  introduction to sociology because the student will work with and within specific social classes.  Thirdly, we  suggest an  introduction to  pedagogy, which includes the methods, forms  and means of education. An introduction to economy can also be of use to him as cultural work depends  on finances and financial  possibilities. It is inevitable that a profound knowledge of the means and methods of aesthetic education will  arise from this because cultural organizational work is always linked with aesthetic education and often directly uses its  means and methods. In the Slovak context, where  the folk culture  is still relatively  alive, mainly outside  city centres, ethnography can  also be of use to the student. In such  a case, the acquisition and practice of  specific   skills  is  often  more   important  than  the acquisition  of knowledge.  This is  due to  the fact that an entire  programme  of  study  can  be  oriented  so  that the student,  after  having  graduated,  can  work  in  different organizations in the  dissemination of cultural activities.87 The  skills   of  the  student   can  be  developed   through journalism,   editing   and   publishing.   Through  artistic criticism  he  can  acquire   practice  in  dramatic  theory, production   and  realization   of  different   scripts.  The preparation of the humanistically-educated classes can render civic education more effective.

The Non-humanistically Educated Classes

"I  consider  the  teaching  of  aesthetics at technical universities (agricultural, chemical,    etc.) to be a questionable task. Aesthetics is  a specialized subject and it is too late to  teach its basics during university studies in  non-aesthetically  specialized  universities.  .  .  . Of course,  the  case  of  aesthetically-specialized  schools is completely  different.  If  a  secondary  school prepares the future  university student  of, say,  mechanical engineering, both culturally and aesthetically we can assume that he could become inspired during his  studies by, for example, lectures on design."88
Jůzl  is sceptical  regarding the  efficacy of  teaching aesthetics or  any subject related  to cultural education  in economical,  agricultural  and  similar  universities. On the other hand, Jůzl also indicates a solution to this problem by suggesting the development of general humanistic curricula in technical universities. That is, aesthetic education can lead the   students  to   consider  their   positions  within  and relationships to the cultural  values of the world. Aesthetic education   can  be   seen   as holding  an   antipodal  or complementary   position  to   technological  or   economical education.  That  is,  it  can  lead  the  non-humanistically educated classes towards an appreciation and understanding of culture and  cultural products. An  understanding of cultural products can develop in students  an empathy for the feelings of other peoples.  In this way, the emphasis  is changed from the passing on of information  to students to the development of the  cultural understanding and  artistic sensibilities of the students.
Aesthetic  education  can   lead  students  "towards  an appreciation of "great"  art and can help them  come to terms with their new experiences by reflecting philosophically upon them."89 Lower-level schools can be criticised for developing in  their students  only the  ability to  understand art  and beauty  in life,  in short,  an aesthetic  creativity. At the university  level, we  can  add  to this  aesthetic education a theory  which reflects  cultural processes  and which leads the students to a conscious  reflection on art and beauty, to a conscious understanding of cultural and artistic processes. Their  understanding   can  be  linked   with  the  cognitive structure  of  the  psyche--the  student  not  only feels and realizes that  he feels (as  he does at  the lower levels  of schools) but he also knows how  he feels and why he feels the way he does.
A  cultural and  humanistic education  can be  raised to a qualitatively  higher degree.  For example,  Jaroslav Volek has  written the  following: "I  am convinced  that the total majority  of  people  in  our  country  more  often  than not encounter the  need to understand  a work of  art . .  . that they are involved in this process within different situations and that they use their cognitive abilities to adapt to them. However, there exists a lack of intellectual understanding of this experience."90  This should be  taken into consideration in every type of school, but in humanistic schools, this type of  experience  can  be  supported  by  the  knowledge gained through   other   humanistic   disciplines.   In   technical, economical or other types of schools, there is nothing of the same  caliber  that  could  support  the  rich  experience of cultural value and its intellectual understanding.
An  aesthetic  education  can  lead  the  student  to an understanding of culture and the human being. This can become the  aim only  when we  decide to  develop in  students their ability  to reflect  on cultural  values. It  can develop  in students an  understanding of the world  where technology and other  branches   of  production,  along   with  natural  and technical sciences, become an active  part of the human world and are  not almighty instruments  with which to  control the world.
Miloš Jůzl  has mentioned another  way in which  one can use  specialised aesthetics  in non-humanistic  universities: these are,  for example, an  aesthetics of design  for future mechanical  engineers,  an  aesthetics  of  nature for future agricultural engineers and the  question of beauty for future physicists   and   mathematicians.   Aesthetics   are,  here, theoretical subjects which do not complement the main subject of study but  are used as the main  subject. The students can gain a basic knowledge  of cultural and aesthetic connections of technology to nature (including ecology), computer art and others  (always  according  to   the  type  of  school).  The abilities reveal  a sense of shared  knowledge and this could be  the result  of the  education of  specialized aesthetics: "first, the  ability to feel  and judge the  human measure of technology, mathematics, computers  and their function within culture--ie. their utility with respect to the fulfillment of a specific purpose by a  specific instrument."91 This type of utilitarian attitude  can lead to  the neglecting of  a human perspective.
The aim of aesthetic education  should not be to abolish a utilitarian attitude  but to share  this attitude with  one that  is  conscious  of  the  human  or cultural component of society: "Due to the fact that an aesthetic attitude does not necessarily begin  in the same place  where a utilitarian one begins . .  . it is much more common  to see relationships in which   utilitarianism  is   not  negated   when  faced  with aesthetics."92 For instance, the  human being cannot cease to appreciate and  understand the soil as  his means of survival but can  enrich his understanding of  its humane qualities by seeing the soil,  the earth and nature in  the context of the development   of   the   human   being.   Taken   from   such a perspective,  we can  assume that  the exploitation  of the earth  could be  decreased and  that more  ecologically sound views of farming and nature  can result. However, we will not digress, as these are  ecological questions. Instead, we will point out  that aesthetics, art,  and cultural and  aesthetic education at universities and academies can lead to a revival of  ecological  consciousness  and   to  a  deeper  need  for coherence between human beings and their cultural positions.

Complex Aesthetic Education

All  that  we  have  mentioned  in  the  previous  model situation (aesthetic education at academies and universities) only  addresses  hypothetical  situations.93  However,  their hypothetical character reinforces the  fact that we have only been dealing with studies at  the university level. We should now mention  that the teaching of  aesthetics at lower levels of  schools is  also effective.  It is  difficult to organize such a  study to fill so  many complex aims and  purposes. In spite  of this  fact,  we  consider such  speculations useful because they can demonstrate to us the possibilities in which civic education  can contain and  benefit from aesthetic  and cultural  education.  The  future  citizen  can  add a deeper cultural and  humanistic dimension to his  personality and to his status as a citizen located in a particular culture.
At the end of our  hypothetical discussion we would like briefly to  illustrate real means towards  the achievement of concrete  goals. In  the majority  of cases  we are  thinking about   combinations   of   discursive   education  with  the development of perception and sensibility, of imagination and the ability to evaluate  the importance of different cultural products.  Some of  our hypothetical  situations also include practical  skills. The  attentive reader  will certainly have noticed that the student, in  his role as future citizen, has always  been  at  the  centre  of  our  attention. All of our considerations in the hypothetical model situations have been directed towards the education of a conscious and responsible citizen. We did not address teachers in this discussion,94 as well as the  needs and norms of the  community. We marginally touched   upon  the   question  of   cultural  and  aesthetic education.  To  use  classical  psychological  -  pedagogical terminology, we  will say that  our considerations have  been oriented neither towards a taught subject nor towards society in  general  but  rather  towards  the  student in particular (subject-centred  orientation,  society-centred  orientation, student and children-centred orientation.)
As a  supporter of Carl  Rogers and his  notion of three orientations,  the  author  considers  the  most important of these  orientations to  be that  towards the  student and his personality and his future civic  needs and resources. In any case,    our    concept    of    civic   education   contains a discipline-based  art or  aesthetic education  (DBAE). From this model  is developed the educational  method that has the support  of the  American Getty  Center for  Education in the Arts. DBAE  combines art theory,  history of art,  aesthetics and practical skills through its  use of art material and, in this way,  becomes a complex educational  system. It develops skills,  perception  and   critical  understanding,  coherent comprehension of  culture and tradition, and  it helps in the recognition and promotion of the  cultural element in our own evaluation   of   the   world.95   DBAE   offers  much  wider possibilities than  just a projects  polyaisthesis. According to the project polyaesthesis96 "the interdependence of action and contemplation  which is of  polyaesthetic significance"97 and  incorporates the  ideal combination  of the  use of  the eyes,  the  ears  and  thought  as  W. Roscher metaphorically expresses in his text.
Basically, this project restricts itself to the level of sensual  perception, even  though in  the background  one can feel the  presence of cultural and  social processes. Project DBAE  addresses,  from  the   beginning,  the  need  to  find a well-balanced  use   of  complex  physical   and  psychical functions of the organism.  This equilibrium is important and includes  the three  dominants  of  teaching in  an aesthetic education: "the productive, the critical, and the historical. Each   of  these   domains  is   characterized  by  concepts, principles,  objectives, and  activities peculiar  to art."98 According to  Gilbert A. Clark,  DBAE orients itself  towards the  child,   society  and  the   subject.  A  system   which concentrates on  the child gives preference  to an individual solution of  problems and to the  self-expression of a child. A system  oriented towards  society gives  preference to  the adoption  of  the  values  of  this  society.  A system which concentrates  on  the  subject  gives  preference to learning within an  organized complex of knowledge.99  The DBAE system gives  preference  to  a   harmony  between  these  one-sided preferences.   DBAE  "contains   a  sensual   and  conceptual exploration of the world which  stimulates in the student his ability  to  develop  his  skills  in  working  with artistic material.  It also  develops his  understanding of  knowledge including aesthetics, theory of art and history of art."100
In many  cases, the DBAE complex  of aesthetic education overlaps  the  frame  of  civic  education.  It  is a complex cultural- educational approach and  we consider this approach very suitable as  a form of cultural education  with in civic education itself.

68) Charles N. Quigley et al., 11
69)  Compare  complicated  situation  of  contemporary Slovak Republic and its culture with the first part of this book.
70) Louis  Arnaud Reid, Ways  of Understanding and  Education (London, 1986), XI
71)  The fall  of the  ideal of  the Period  of Enlightenment clearly reflects the character  of the present world. Compare to the first part of this book.
72)  Harry  S.  Broudy,  The  Uses  of  Schooling  (New York: Routledge, 1988), 12 - 19
73) Harry S. Broudy, 65
74)  Harry S.  Broudy calls  for inclusion  of the fourth "R" (art)  into the  group of  the three  "R"s (reading, writing, arithmetics).
75) Education through  art is considered by the  author as an integral part of aesthetic education.
76)  In  this  case  we  could  substitute the term aesthetic education  for  a  wider  one:  cultural  education,  as  was mentioned in the first part of this book. However, we use the term aesthetic education to emphasize both concrete aesthetic methods and  the use of  art as opposed  to general cultural- educational methods.
77) By  the term to  be cultural (culture)  we understand not only cultural behaviour (etiquette) but also the way in which the citizen actively influences the cultural process.
78) We  studied them in the  second part of this  book and we will deal with them in the following considerations.
79) For example, Faculties  of Arts and Philosophy, Faculties of Education and others.
80) V. Jůva, Vysoká škola a výchova (Brno, 1981), 97
81) K. Jones, review  of Wittgenstein, Ethics and Aesthetics, by  B.R.  Tilgham,  The  British  Journal  of  Aesthetics  32 (1992): 81
82) These theoretical considerations about culture serve also as a professional basis for  proper profession as well as the starting point  for the civic  attitudes inside the  cultural process.
83) Here, we use the term thinker due to the lack of a better term. Of course, each intellectual  is somehow a thinker, but we want to emphasize a  reflexive basis of thinking as oposed to an empirical  and objectivist one, as we  are trying to be scientifically  precise.  So  the  term  thinker  will act as a metaphorical  expression  of  the  orientation  of thinking inside  the human  being and  the relationship  of the  human being with the world.
84) Cf. Aesthetic Culture (Theory-research-practice) ed. Jana Šalgovičová and Ján Tazberík (Bratislava: VUK, 1982)
85) Such an  education can effectively aid in  the process of value reflection in aesthetics (compare to the second part of this book). With  the use of such a  reflection we can create a consciousness  of ecological  cultural creation.  (This has been mentioned in the first part of this book because in such a new   type  of   culture  it   is  necessary   to  evaluate continuously the relationship between the human being and the social, natural, and technical objects that surround him.)
86) We have already discussed a similar type of aesthetics in the second part of this book.
87) In  this case we  can talk about  an unambiguous cultural orientation of the future citizen.
88)  Miloš   Jůzl,  "Podíl  estetické   výchovy  na  príprave budoucích učitelů,"  Estetická výchova 29.4  (December 1988): 10
89) Eugene Kelly, "Philosophy,  Aesthetic Experience, and the Liberal Arts," The Journal of Aesthetic Education. 17.3 (Fall 1983): 5
90) Jaroslav Volek, Základy  obecné teorie umění (Praha: SPN, 1968), 231
91)  Dušan   Šindelář,  Filosofie  užitkové   tvorby  (Praha: Svoboda, 1971), 7
92) Dušan Šindelář, 7
93) Many of the abovementioned situations have been proven by the author  in his own  practice as a  teacher of aesthetics, aesthetic  education and  cultural anthropology  in different universities and academies.
94) We dedicate them to the last part of this book.
95) In the  last sentence we paraphrased the  ideas of Elliot W.  Eisner, The  Role  of  Discipline-Based Art  Education in Americans  Schools   (Los  Angeles:  The   Getty  Center  for Education in the Arts, n.d.), 17 - 20
96)  The way  in  which  Hochschule "Mozarteum"  in Salzburg, Austria develops them.
97)    Wolfgang    Roscher,    "Polyaesthesis-Polyaesthetics- Polyaesthetic Education" in Polyaesthesis, ed. W. Roscher and Ch.G. Allesch and P.M. Krakauer (Vienna: VWGOE, 1991), 10
98)  Ralph A.  Smith, "The  Changing Image  of Art Ecucation: Theoretical  Antecedents of  Discipline-Based Art Education," The Journal of Aesthetic Education 21.2
99)   Gilbert  A.   Clark,  Examining   Discipline-Based  Art Education  As  a  Curriculum  Construct (Bloomington: Indiana University, 1991), 3 - 4
100) 	Gilbert A. Clark