Chapter 3  The Nature of Civic Education

The Nature of Civic Education

General  opinion, not  only in  Slovakia but  also in  many other  countries,   reduces  civic  education   to  political education,    in   authoritarian    regimes   to    political indoctrination. In our  work we rely on the  concept of civic education  containing  political   education  but  not  being reduced exclusively  to it. Civic  education embraces a  much larger scope of components.  Much about its orientation helps to explain the etymology of the word citizen.
In  the  pre-literary  period   of  the  Slovak  language, following Latin  and Slovak words,  civitas, civis, urbs  and civil, občan, mešťan and mesto,39 were very closely connected (in  some works  on linguistics  they were  considered to  be equivalent). They  were semantically very  close because they described  a  greater   autonomous  unit  possessing  certain privileges  (usually  granted  by  the  sovereign)  and which itself defined its own legal  system. We can thus speak about cities which had had similar legal systems for centuries. The origin of the word občan/citizen  may be found in Latin words with the root  civi- , which were also  related to autonomous units  (especially  to  the  city  of  Rome).  They were also semantically   close  to   the  terms   urbs,  urbanus.   The best-known  of them,  civitas, involved  both citizenship and city. According to the Latin-Czech Dictionary,40 it had three connotations -  municipality, religious community  and state. These   expressions   penetrated   Anglo-Saxon   and  Romanic languages  from Latin:  the English  word citizen  (in Middle English  citizin, in  Anglo-French citizein)  referred to  an inhabitant of  a city that  enjoyed the rights  and duties of a free citizen. He  was a citizen protected by  the state and city. The  English word city,  with the same  root, refers to a large town  (in Middle English citie,  in Old French cité). In the past it also pointed  to a small but densely populated and important site.    Merriam-Webster's   Collegiate Dictionary41  also refers  to  the  expresion hind,  with its roots in  hiwan (Middle English) -  members of the household, Old  German -  hiwo -  husband or  wife, or  Lithuanian šeima - family.  Even  the  French   word  citoyen  connotates  the inhabitant of a city.42
In Slavonic languages, the  term citizen has similar roots. In Russian, the word graždanin  relates to gorod, ograda, and grad, which  have roots in the  Gothic term gards -  court or house.43  In Slovak  and Czech  the word  občan developed  in relation  to  vôbec,  vůbec,   which  originated  in  v  óbec - together,  mutually,  publicly.44  According  to V. Machek, this word originates from the proto-Slavonic ob'ť or from the Old Slovinien ob'šť -  belonging to one district, "precinct," sphere of power, living space,  and community; later the word changed first into a noun -  obec - commonly lived in country or thing,  and then described  everything on commonly  shared land, including property and people.
One   thing   is    remarkable:   when   scanning   various dictionaries, we did not find  any connotation of these terms with the  word politics with  one exception -  the Greek word polis, which  denotes a city  state; however, even  this word relates to  the word politeia, citizen.45  All other meanings of words with the root  polit-, polic- were related either to the form of government,  orientation, leadership, or care for the general welfare, etc.
The  etymology  of  various   words  taken  from  different languages points clearly to the  fact that the semantic field of the words citizen, citizenship  covers a broader area than only  political  relationships   or  relationships  to  legal system. It provides us with evidence that the word is related to  municipality,   a  community  occupying   certain  closed territory and governed by its own laws, which were relatively freely  introduced.46  According  to  Ľ.  Lupták's  Občianska spoločnosť (Civic Society),47 it  is necessary to distinguish political system  of a state from  the civic organization and problems of citizenship, though  they overlap and intertwine. To  make   this  survey  more   complete,  let  us   remember F.Joklík's book Úvod k  občanské nauce (Introduction to Civic Education),  which  emphasizes  the   relation  of  the  term občiansky (civic) to obecenstvo  (community), and stresses an individual's   respect  for   the  environment.  Citizenship, citizen, civic problems and civic education include and cover a much broader  scope of questions  than those dealt  with in political  education only.  We tend  to conceive  of these as problems   of  constitutional   law,  a   hypothesis  on  the relationship between language  and the particular development of social  structures. Towns and  municipalities of the  past were   organizational   units   defining   their   own  inner jurisdiction  (valid also  for smaller  towns and communities without  royal  privileges,  where   the  sovereign  did  not interfere with  the details of jurisdiction  in a community); nowadays, the  state is responsible  for the creation  of the legal system. It  is the state that defines  the legal system of every  community. During the past  forty years, Slovakia's experience  was  the  state   being  the  only  and  almighty authority  deciding  all  details  concerning  the rights and duties  of  citizens.49  In  Western  Europe  and the U.S.A., problems of  civic society are  more directly connected  with individual  towns  and  communities,  because  they  have not experienced the  authoritarian state control  and, then, they have been based on the principles of liberal or parliamentary democracy  for  several  centuries.  For  this  reason, it is easier to understand the shift of problems of civic education in Slovakia to questions  of constitutional law and politics. It  is  important  to  lay  emphasis  on  the return to civic society,  the rights  and duties  of individual  citizens and community.

                               * * *

We take  the questions asked  today by Slovak  citizens as the  starting  point  for  defining  the  problems  of  civic education.  To a  certain  degree,  their situation  does not differ profoundly  from the situation of  citizens in Western Europe. Despite  this, we shall  seek what is  characteristic for the Slovak Republic.
Slovak  citizens  have  to  cope  with  several  principal matters.
First, they still confront  the totalitarian past of their country, which radically queried the need and possibility for citizens   to  explore   self-realization  or   the  confused relations between citizen and society, citizen and community, citizen and state.
Second, they face the values crisis of the 20th century in the most  radical form expressed  by post-modernist societies in the close of the  century. Both problems make the citizens of  the  Slovak  Republic  question  the  meaning of life and search for the means to achieve personal goals.
Third,  the existence  of an  independent Slovak  Republic since  January  1,  1993,  reopened  burning  issues  of  the historical and cultural tradition,  of the roots and position of  the  Slovak  nation  in  history,  the  region and on the continent.
These questions, which we  consider fundamental for Slovak citizens today, give rise to a series of questions an average Slovak  citizen  can  seek  answers  for  by  means  of civic education.
Who am I? This question is directed towards the problem of individual and group identity.
Where do  I come from?  Regarding historical and  cultural traditions, this question attracts  attention to the problems of individual  citizen identity with its  broader or narrower social framework.
 Where  do  I  live?  This  question  does  not  relate  to geography  in  general,  but  to  local  culture, history and geography.
 What do  I live for  and why? This  question expresses the search  for  the  meaning  of  life  and  a more solid values orientation in a general values crisis.
 How  can  I  and  shall  I  realize  myself? Citizens seek a basis  for  their  individual  self-realization  -  how  to achieve  it, its  goals and  means. It  is understood  in the broadest  sense of  the word  - starting  with the family and ending with the state.
 Who  are the  people around  me? This  means searching for identity of the community in which citizens live, orientation amid  the  multitude   of  diversified  values  orientations, self-reflection  through  other  people,  and  the search for national identity.
 What is the basis for and how am I to understand the events passing  by  me?  This   question  concerns  the  changes  of a society transforming from a  totalitarian regime to a state based   on  democratic   principles;  it   has  a  world-wide dimension.
 Questions  Slovak   citizens  may  ask   themselves  about cultural values, about the cultural dimensions of citizenship could be:
 What are my roots? What and  where is my place in history? This  reflects  both  the  search  for  and  comprehension of cultural identity of a citizen  in the framework of one's own national culture and others,  in sub-cultures and alternative cultures, and cultural traditions.
 Why are there  so many cultures in the  world? Today, it is necessary to  understand the differences  among cultures, not only to  understand the sense  of and reasons  for otherness. Finally, answers to this question promote cultural tolerance, empathy, and also realization of one's own cultural identity.
 Shall I participate in the  culture? How? How can I realize myself in it?  To ask this question means  to seek a solution to  the contemporary  problems of  culture, which  tosses one between the  tendency to close oneself  and to participate in world  affairs. That  means searching  for ecologic  culture. With  the help  of civic  education, Slovak  citizens will be able  to get  answers to  these questions.  The goal  of this process is,  of course, the  education of a  citizen, i.e. an individual,  who is  attentive to  the events  in society and responsible  at the  same time.  To listen  carefully and  be responsible  are   subjective  qualities  or   properties  of a citizen, not  given by the  conditions existing objectively in  society. That  entitles us  to assert  that: though civic education is to assist in the creation of a civic society, it represents  only  one  aspect  of  the  difficult  problem of citizenship.
 According  to M.  Walzer, civic  society is  "the space of uncoerced human  association and also  the set of  relational networks -  formed for the  sake of family,  faith, interest, and ideology - that fills  this space."51 All volunteer civic associations and organizations in  the sphere of culture, the economy,   family,  interest   groups  or   other  areas  not controlled by  the government rank here.  Or, according to Ľ. Lupták, they  are social activities  not standardized by  the state,52 and,  though connected with  the political space  of the  community,  they  are  not  political organizations. The above cited  CIVITAS enumerates the  leading forms of  civic, volunteer  activity: religious  communities and institutions, informal volunteer  activities such as caring  for old people or children, educational activities,  activities aimed at the development  of  young  people,  e.g.  boy  and  girl scouts, charities, health-care activities,  activities connected with employment  -  trade  unions  and  professional associations, associations  supporting  welfare   in  society  or  fighting against poverty or nuclear weapons, artistic projects for the preservation  of  monuments,  folklore  groups,  the  'green' movement and political groups.52
 In  this form,  civic society  is only  an outer  space for citizens'  self-assertion. Though  indispensable, it  remains only  an outer  space and  prerequisite for  the existence of a citizen  as  a  citizen.  The  activities  given  above are objective (that is outside  the consciousness and activity of an  individual)  -  the   rights,  duties  and  possibilities provided  by  the  society  and  enabling  a  citizen  to  be a citizen.      For     this      reason,     we     consider "citizenship-as-legal-status, that  is as full  membership in a particular political community."54
 The  problem   of  citizenship  covers   another,  equally important area. A civic society as a network of relationships is not  created by a demiurge  or absolute spirit, but  it is a being gradually created by  individuals living in a certain "community,"  in   a  certain  society.  It   is  a  strongly subjective  product  whose  objectivity  arises  only because manifold subjective, individual ideas, desires and activities intersect here. In order to educate a citizen it is important first of  all take into account  this subjective character of the civic  society, i.e. the  abilities and possibilities  of individuals  - their  individual or  collective identity, the multitude  of collective  or individual  activities, and also the fact they express through their activity their individual goals  or  images  of  the  world  and  themselves,  or their self-expression. These  three properties of  a citizen -  his identity,  activity  and  self-expression  -  are  considered substantial to civic education. Or  more exactly, that is the goal towards  which civic education  is to be  directed. This form is "citizenship-as-desirable-activity,  where the extent and  quality  of  one's  citizenship  is  a function of one's participation in that community."55
 In order for  citizens to be able to  meet their individual desires and  shape civic society, the  existence of objective conditions  is  not   enough;  subjective  prerequisites  are important  for civic  education as  well (probably  even much more important). Real citizenship  arises and perseveres only where the legal status of citizenship is secured and citizens promote  activities for  the  sake  of their  citizenship. To become a citizen means having the consciousness of a citizen, and acting as a fully-qualified citizen means not only living in a civic society but also means:
 1.   Awareness  and   realization  of   one's  own   rights (political,  economic,  and  human)  and  insistence on their application as well as apply them oneself.
 2.  Awareness and  realization of  civic duties (political, human and economic) and fulfilling them attentively.
 3.  Awareness   of  one's  own  civic   liberty  [which  is a precondition  for the  balance of  rights and  duties], but also being able and willing to protect it.
 4.   Awareness  and   realization  of   one's  own   civic, historical,  and  national  identity,  one's  own broader and narrower community.
 5. Firmly established democratic  habits, skills and views, which are the exclusive tools enabling cooperation among free individuals.
 6.  In   order  to  promote   previous  abilities,  skills, knowledge  and values,  it is  important to  develop critical thinking,  independent thinking  and action  completed by the ability  to  cooperate  with   other  members  of  one's  own community and members of others.
 The possibility for the continual creation of the objective conditions  needed for  the  existence  of a  citizen [points 1-6] is thus constituted by a citizen (citizens).
 Only  the   unity  of  objective   social  conditions  with subjective abilities,  skills and will enable  us to identify a real citizen.  Only that citizen who  can, wants, knows and acts  can  fully  employ  his  own  rights  in society and be responsive  in fulfilling  his own  duties. In  the unity  of can-want-know-act  (points  1-6)  the  expected  behaviour of a citizen  lies.   This  behaviour  leads   to  the  shaping, preserving and development of civic society.
 The general picture of the  expected behaviour of a citizen made concrete  in relation to  the cultural dimension  of his citizenship will be analogous:
 1. Awareness of one's  own cultural identity and tradition and exhibition of respect for them in one's own behaviour.
 2. "Loyalty"  to a particular  culture, i.e. comprehension and  acceptance   of  one's  own  place   in  its  historical development.
 3. Awareness of the duty  to protect and develop one's own culture, cultural identity  and cultural tradition56 (broader or narrower, or "other" community).
 4. Empathy  and tolerance to  other cultures and  cultural traditions.
 5.  Democratic  habits  in  relation  to  other  cultures, ability to cooperate58 with members of other cultures.
 6. The maintenance of  a critical and independent relation to the  development of cultural tradition  and to the culture of  one's  own  community;  ability  for  individual cultural self-expression.
 Through  the activities  and abilities  listed in  1-6, the possibility of  a fully-qualified creation  of a new  culture corresponding  to the  needs of  the period  and the  citizen exists.  That  is  the  type  of  creation that continues the development  of cultural  tradition  and,  at the  same time, enables  the  rise  of  quite  new  cultures. Only harmony of tradition and new  forms of culture enable us  to speak about the real  cultural behaviour of a  citizen. Their unity makes possible the  continuity of human  activities, while it  also leads to new kinds of human activities.
 These subjective  prerequisites for being  a citizen, which we  have  defined  in  such  a  complicated  way,  deepen our assumption supported  at first by  the etymology of  the word 'citizen',  that  civic education  is  not  necessarily only political  education,59 because  it is  able to  permeate the life of  a society more  profoundly through the  education of citizens.  If it  can have  other much  broader functions, we dare emphasize  our assertion that civic  education cannot be taken only  for political education  (nor just for  ideologic indoctrination). As  its activities are  greatly diversified, it  cannot  stop  with   the  mediation  of  knowledge  about political  or legal  systems. If  it were  to stop,  it could focus only  on the extension  of knowledge about  politics or law,  or   on  extension  of   encyclopaedic  knowledge,  the development   of  the   categorial  apparatus   or  cognitive structures of  citizens. On the  contrary, as it  touches the personal  prerequisites of  an individual,  it extends beyond the mere development of cognitive structures and changes into a much broader  and more complete  education. It fosters  the general development of man,  his abilities, skills, knowledge and  activities. Civic  education influences  the psyche  and behaviour  of future  citizens so  that they  will be able to answer the  above mentioned questions  and behave in  concert with their  answers. This civic education  should be complete civic education having the following functions:
C - cognitive  development - aiming at teaching  man how to learn, think and solve problems.
E - 'emotionalization' - aiming at teaching man to feel and develop his  competence to feel and  perceive, to develop his feelings, emotions.
M -  motivation - aiming  at the development  of interests, needs and  wants for one's own  personal image and activities appropriate to it.
S  -  socialization  -  aiming  at  teaching  man  to  live alongside  other  people,  how   to  communicate  and  create positive human relations.
A  -  'axiolization'  of  a  personality  -  aiming  at the development of a positive values orientation and teaching one how to assess one's values.
C  - creative  development -  the function  of which  is to develop a new creative style in the personality.60
For civic education this means:
C  - cognitive  development -  providing young  people with basic knowledge  on the organization of  society and by means of model situations and problems show them how to manage them in their own lives.
E - emotionalization -  teaching young citizens to perceive the problems of their community and people around them.
M  - motivation  - cultivating   the need  to be  an active citizen,  cultivate the  needs for  self-realization and  the need to communicate and cooperate with other people.
S -  socialization - developing  the ability of  responsive participation  in  public  life  and  the  life  of one's own community, and the ability of self-assertion.
A  - axiolization  - developing  the values  orientation of young citizens so that they  will regard civic and democratic society, develop respect for others, tradition, community and for themselves.
C- creative development -  cultivating the abilities needed to  approach  all  these   mentioned  situations,  needs  and activities in a creative way, so that neither the society nor the individual will stagnate but progress in terms of values, culture and civilization.
If  we  move  these  functions  of  civic  education towards a cultural dimension, then, civic  education will guide young people to:
C  - cognitive  development -  teaching them  to understand where their own and other people's roots in culture are.
E -  emotionalization - teaching them  to perceive and have empathy  for  the  different  cultural  backgrounds  of other citizens.
M - motivation - teaching them to esteem and appreciate the cultural  differences  of  other  people  and  guide  them to promoting it, not suppressing it.
S - socialization - bringing them to cultural tolerance and their  own  participation  in  the  creation  of the cultural identity of the community through self-expression in cultural products.
A  -  axiolization  -  this  cultural  dimension  of  civic education  cultivates  cultural  openness  in  children, this means  an  effort  to   eliminate  prejudices  towards  other cultures,  to teach  them to  judge others  without bias, and make  one's own  judgement  of  other cultures  together with one's own cultural background or tradition.
C  - creative  development -   to teach  them to  accept in a creative way  cultural products; with  talented children it promotes  their  creative  self-expression  through  cultural products.
This system,  known as CEMSAC  (KEMSAK - an  Slovak acronym - invented by its author M. Zelina) thus describes a complete programme for  the development of citizens  in their cultural dimensions.  The  unity  of  knowledge, emotions, motivation, social   abilities   and   skills,   values  hierarchies  and creativity opens  the door to such  a development of citizens as will  foster their instrumental behaviour  in society. The term  instrumental behaviour  is employed  according to  N.E. Boulting, the author of four concepts of human action61 [viz. the scheme].  Having this scheme  in mind, we  assume that M. Zelina's  system,  CEMSAC,  will   develop  a  citizen  whose activities are called by  N. Boulting instrumental behaviour. According to Boulting's characterization,  the citizen can be described  as follows:  he  will  not succumb  to prejudices, neither  his   own  nor  someone  else's:   he  will  not  be inattentive  and will  not manipulate  others cooly,  either. This  citizen will  recognize appropriate  means by  which to attain  his goals,  but, at  the same  time, he  will respect reality.   His  reactions   will  not   be  instinctive,  but cultivated   and  purposeful.   This  citizen   will  act  as a complete  personality,  but  he  will  realize the possible effects  of  his  acts  and  therefore  modify  his goals and behaviour.  He  will  take  into  account  the  habits of the community,  but,  at  the  same  time,  he  will  be  able to transgress them if it is beneficial for the community. Habits will not be,  therefore, sacred dogmas for him.  He will find a path    for   self-realization    without   violating   the environment.  His goal  will be  a gradual  transformation of himself and his environment. He  will act in an instrumental, calculated manner on the basis of a firm values hierarchy and with passion.  This concerns the assertion  of his rights and duties, his civic identity and personal freedom, and critical and  independent  thinking  (perception).  We  return  to the notion that  a real citizen can,  knows how to, wants  to and will  achieve. It  is because  civic education  based on  the CEMSAC system  provided him with knowledge  and developed his skills, motivation and  emotionality, therefore preparing him to improve and transform his  individual life and his society according to his image. 
Awareness of an individual as a person

INSTRUMENTAL				RESPONSIVE
BEHAVIOUR					ACTION

Means to ends dominates			Spontaneous response
where reckoning on				where reckoning on
consequences is at				consequences is at
a maximum					a minimum

CALCULATED					PASSIONATE
MANIPULATION				BEHAVIOUR

Awareness of an individual as a thing

In  relation to  N. E.  Boulting's  scheme, we,  of course, think  of a  general image   of citizen.  We suppose  that in reality man-citizen  would react to  a concrete situation  in a very  sensitive  way;  in  a  different  situation he would become  fully  engaged,  some  other  time,  he would have to calculate cooly, etc. Instrumental behaviour is understood as a general orientation  of citizen behaviour. It  is a general tendency in education;  in no case does it  mean an effort to make man behave in an  instrumental and highly reasonable way in every situation.

Multiculturalism in Civic Education

In  the   first  chapter  of  this   book  we  spoke  about multicultural education as one of  the principal goals in the civic  education of  citizens of  the Slovak  Republic (along with  education  towards  awareness  of  one's  own  cultural identity   and   education   towards   ecologically  oriented culture). There  also our considerations  are based on  civic competence and commitments, meaning  on civic virtues.62 Then at the end of the second chapter we stated that multicultural education   meets   contemporary   (non-classical)  aesthetic education  in   terms  of  goals.  It   is  obvious  that  if multicultural education is to seek its place in the system of education, it should seek it:
1. in the context of civic education.
2. in cooperation with aesthetic education.
First  let   us  study  the   relationship  between  civic education and multicultural education.
The  American  theoretician   of  multiculturalism,  Peter McLaren, in  his books63 distinguishes  three main approaches to these issues:
1.  Conservative  multiculturalism  viewing  world cultures from  the point  of Euro-American  imperialism. Everything in Africa   and  Asia   different   from   the  values   of  the Euro-American  world  is  labeled  as  barbarian,  primitive, undeveloped.
2. Liberal multiculturalism considering  all cultures to be equal in their nature without taking into account any social, historical  or economic  conditions, expecting  their natural and  equal  competition.  It  is  a  view  that tends to make absolute the peculiarities of  individual cultures and ignore their social and historical roots.
3. Critical multiculturalism  studying cultural diversities in the  context of racial, social  and sexual differences and also  embracing a  much broader  social context  of signs and meanings circulating in world culture.
In this book we are inclined to accept the last approach to problems of multiculturalism though,  as P. McLaren stresses, none  of them  appears in  a clear  form. So-called  critical multiculturalism   respects,   nevertheless,   the   concrete historical   and   social   conditions   of   each   culture. Multicultural  education  may,  if  it  respects these facts, think  of the  concrete  conditions  of cultures,  which will enable  the cultivation  of  tolerance  and empathy  to other cultures  more  effectively.  We  can  feel  empathy to other cultures if we understand, at least partially, its individual peculiarities  created  by   its  specific  socio-historical position.
Comprehension  of specific  socio-historical positions  of cultures,  i.e.  critical  multiculturalism,  is  a basis for a further  shift in  consciousness. At  the end  of the  20th century, we  found ourselves in  a Europe consisting  of many national states,  which are considered  to be homogeneous  in terms  of culture.  As a  consequence of  this homogeneity of states (homogeneity  is often proclaimed as  the ideal of the state),  "many  groups  -  blacks,  women, Aboriginal people, ethnic and  religious minorities, gays  and lesbians -  still feel excluded  from the 'common  culture,' despite possessing the  common rights  of citizenship."64  Antonio Perotti says, "one common misconception seems  to be that multiculturalism, differences,  other cultures  and minorities  are a  problem. Whereas the real problem is quite the opposite. It is that of society's 'oneness.' The question  which has just been raised challenges in particular the nation-states which, since their formation,  have  tended  by  nature  to  see  themselves  as monolithic."65
The  sense   of  viewing  concrete   historical  situations (critical  multiculturalism)  leads  us,  in  the  context of diversified civic society, to stop seeing the nation state as an everlasting and  absolute monolith. We begin to  see it as an antagonistic  set of various  cultures. At the  same time, this set exists in its present form only here and now; in the past, it  was different most probably  from today's form, and in  the  future  it  will  not  be  the  same again. Critical multiculturalism  breaks  what  is  absolute  in  culture, it breaks the attempt to view  a particular culture as something ultimate or the absolute  climax of its development. Critical multiculturalism promotes multicultural education through its concrete  view because  only in  culture is  it necessary  to point to the changeability and relativity of cultural values. Realizing the  relativity of one's  own cultural values,  one can accept  different values much  more easily (though  again only  in their  relativity). Owing  to the  acceptance of the relativity of  one's own cultural  values, it is  possible to resist the  temptation to make them  superior to others. This cultural  pride,  which  means  the  imposition  of one's own culture above  others, leads to a  miscomprehension of and an alienation  from   other  cultures.  Finally,   it  leads  to intolerance,  prejudice and  to moral,  social and  political conflicts.
We  have   paid  great  attention   to  McLaren's  critical multiculturalism because the view of  the author of this book is exactly  expressed here -  the view of  cultural tolerance and empathy.  This view, constituting part  of people's taste attitudes, is  also a composite of  moral and civic attitudes and  is  considered  the  ultimate  goal.  In this explicitly articulated   goal,   civic   and   multicultural   education inevitably meet. But how?
To make  the answer to  this question easier,  we shall use a set  of key  words for  civic education  as they  have been determined by the Centre for Citizenship Studies in Education at The  University of Leicester65 (viz.  following pages; key words from this  source are in the left  column, on the right are our  own original key words  for multicultural education. Both columns are arranged in  alphabetical order, so that the parallels  and  differences  can  be  clearly seen. Identical terms are underlined). The system  of key words is introduced here as it clarifies further the scope, content and themes of both spheres of education - civic and multicultural.

Alternative			Knowledge
Anti-racism			Law
Art				Local
Attitude				Modern
Change				Multicultural
Communication			Pluralistic
Conservatism			Prejudice
Culture				Progress
Cultural difference [diversity]	Public
Discrimination			Racism
Education			Religious
Equality			Safety
History				School
Humanism, humanities		Sex
Identity				Science
Individuum			Social science
Inequality			Standard
Information			Stereotypes
Integration			Values
International

Civic education			Multicultural education
Abortion
Abuse
Acceleration
Accident
Accommodation
Accounts
Accreditation
Action
Active citizen
Adolescence
Adoption
Adulthood
Advertising
Advice
Advocacy
Agriculture
Aid
AIDS
Aims
Alcohol
Alternative medicine			Alternative
Animal products
Animal rights
Anti-racist				Anti-racism
Anti-sexist
Apartheid
Appeals
Application forms
APR
Art					Art
Assembly				Assimilation
Assessment
Attendance
Attittudes				Attittudes
Autonomy				Authenticity
Baby
Baby-sitter
Balance of payments
Bank of England
Banking
Bankruptcy
Beggars				Barbarian
Behaviour				Beauty
Beliefs
Bereavement
Bias
Biology
Biotechnology
Body
Books
Borrowing
Budgeting
Buildings
Bullying
Burial
Business
Business studies
Cancer
Careers
Caring
Case studies
Cash flow
Cashier
Central Government
Change agents				Change
Channel tunnel
Charity
Charter of Social Citizenship
Cheques
Child development
Child labour
Childhood
Children
Children's rights
Choices
Christianity
Cities
Citizenship
Citizenship education
City
Civics					Civil rights
Civil law				Civilization
Class
Co-operation				Collision
Collective responsibility			Colonization
Commitment
Communication				Communication
Communication skills
Community
Community activity
Community development
Community safety
Community service
Community studies
Computer software
Confidence
Conflict
Conservation				Conservatism
Consultancy
Consumer
Consumer rights
Contemporary studies			Contact
Contract				Continuity
Controversial issues			Cooperation
Convention on Rights of Child
Coroner
Costs					Cosmopolitism
Costing
Council
Councelling
Court
Crafts and design
Credit
Credit cards
Cremation
Crime
Cross-curricular
Cross-curricular elements
Cross-curricular themes
CSV					Cultural centre
Cultural diversity			Cultural differences
Culture					Cultural erosion
Current affairs				Cultural excommunication
Curriculum				Cultural heritage
Curriculum development		Cultural imperialism
Curriculum planning			Cultural politics
Dance/drama/PE 			Cultural tradition
Data					Culture
Dealers					Culture codes
Death					Culture group
Debates				Customs
Debt					Danger
Decision-making
Democracy
Dental health
Design
Development
Deviance
Dilemma				Dialogue
Dimensions				Difference
Disabled				Differentiation
Discipline
Discrimination				Discrimination
Disease
Divorce
Drugs					Doctrine
Duties					Domination
Earning
Economic development
Economics
Education				Education
Education for Citizenship
Education for Democracy
Education Reform Act
EEC/EU
EIU
Elderly
Election
Electricity				Elite
Embryo research
Employer
Employment
Empowerement
Endangered species
Energy
English
Enterprise
Entitlement
Environment
Equal opportunities			Equality
Ethics					Ethnic group
Ethos					Ethnocentrism
Euthanasia
Evaluation
Evidence
Exercise
Exhibition				Exotic
Expenditure
Experiences
Experiments
Exploitation
Family
Family history
Famine
Finance				Fashion
Food
Football				Foreigner
Friends                             		Forms of culture
Gender
Genetic engineering
Geography
Government
Graffiti
Greenhouse Effect
Habitats
Habits
Handicapped
Headteachers
Health
Health and Safety
Health care
Health promotion
Heart
Hidden Curriculum                   		Hierarchy
Higher Education
Hire purchase
History					Hisstory
HIV
Holiday
Home
Home economics
Homelessness
House of Commons			Homogenious
Household accounts
Housing
Human development
Human rights
Humanism				Humanism
Humanities				Humanities
Hunting
Hygiene				Identification
Identity					Identity
Independence				Ideology
Image
Individual				Individual
Industrial relations
Industry
Inequality				Inequality
Inflation					Influence
Information books			Information
Information technology
Initial teacher training
Injustice
Insurance
Integrated teaching			Integration
Interdependence			Integrity
Interest					Intelligentsia
Interest
Intermediate technology
International				International
Internationalization
Interview
Involvement				Isolation
Job
Justice
Knowledge				Knowledge
Labour markets
Land Use				Language
Law					Law
Law and order
Learning
Learning difficulties
Leaving home
Leisure
Letters
Life skills
Life-style
Literacy					Literary language
Litter
Loan
Local  government			Local culture
Location
Loneliness
Magazines
Magistrates
Mail Order				Majority
Management				Manipulation
Market research
Marketing				Mass Culture
Maths
Media
Mediation
Medical Ethics
Medicine				Minority
Mock election				Minority rights
Modern languages			Modern
Monarchy
Monetary policy
Money
Money management			Monocultural
Moral education
Morality
Mortgage
MPs
Multicultural  education			Multicultural
Multicultural society			Myth
Museum
National Curriculum			Nation
National habits				National culture
Needs					National liberation
Neglect					National state
Neighbourhood care			Nationalism
Neighbourhoods			Nature
Neighbours
Newspapers				Non-verbal communication
Nuclear family				Norms
Nuclear power
Nutrition
Objections				Objective
Obligations
Old Age
One parent families
Opportunities				Originality
Ourselves				Other
Overdraft
Parents
Parliament
Participation				Partnership
Paying					Patriotism
Peace
Penal reform
Personal
Personal and Social Education
Personal awareness
Personal relationships
Philosophy
Placements
Planning
Play
Playground
Pluralistic society			Pluralistic
Police
Policies
Policy
Political education
Political parties
Political philosophy
Politics
Pollution
Population
Post-modernity
Poverty
Power
Prejudice				Prejudices
Prices
Primary
Prime Minister
Prison					Privileges
Problem-solving
Production
Progression				Progress
Project
Promoting
Protection
Provision
PSE
Psychological
Public health				Public life
Public  services
Publications
Punishment
Race
Racism					Racism
Radio
Railways
Reconciliation
Record of Achievement
Recycling
Refugees
Relationships
Religious education			Religion
Religious tolerance
Research
Research methods
Resource centres			Respect
Resources
Responsibility
Rights
Risks					Ritual
Roads
Role play
Roles
Rules
Safety					Safety
Savings
School 					School system
School bank
School council
School nurse
Science				Science
Secondary
Security
Self
Self-awareness				Self-expression
Self-development			Self-reflection
Self-esteem
Selling
Sentencing				Sense
Separation
Service
Sex education				Sex
Sexism
Sexual health
Sexuality
Shoplifting
Simulation
Skills					Signs
Skills for adolescence
Skills for school-leavers
Smoking
Social sciences				Social class
Social skills				Social science
Social studies				Social order
Social welfare
Social work
Society
Sociology
Speaker's Commision
Special needs
Species
Sports
Standard of living			Standard
Stereotype				Stereotypes
Stress					Subcultures
Stress					Subjective
Substance
Sunday
Surveys
Sustainability
Tax
Teacher training			Taste
Teamwork
Technology
Teeth
Themes
Therapies				They
Think
Time
Timing
Topic work				Tolerance
Tourism
Towns
Trade
Trade unions				Tradition
Traffic
Training
Transport
Travel
Treatment
Trespass
Trial
Tutorial work				Truth
TV
UN
Convention
Underdevelopment			Understanding
Unemployment				Uniformity
Urban studies
Values					Values
Vandalism
Vehicles
Verdict
Video
Violence
Voluntary
Voting
Wages					We
Waste
Water
Welfare
Women
Work
World agriculture
World Citizenship
Year council
Young people				You
Youth
Youth work

We can  see that multicultural and civic education overlap in the following key words:

Alternative				International
Anti-racism				Knowledge
Art					Law
Attitude					Local
Change					Modern
Communication				Multicultural
Conservativism				Pluralistic
Culture					Prejudice
Cultural difference (diversity)		Progress
Discrimination				Public
Education				Racism
Equality				Religious
History					Safety
Humanism				School
Humanities				Science
Identity					Sex
Individuum				Social science
Inequality				Standard
Information				Stereotypes
Integration				Values

They treat key themes such as:
1.  Personal  relationships   of  individuals  to  society - safety, identity, individual,  I, sex, attitudes, equality, faith.
 2.  Their   position  in  society   -  anti-racism-racism, inequality-  equality,  discrimination,  values, information, communication, prejudice, school system - school.
 3.  Broader   social  context  -   alternative,  humanism, integration, conservatism, international, pluralistic, right, social.
 4.   Broader   cultural   context   -   values,  humanism, humanities,   culture,  cultural   diversity,  multicultural, religion, social sciences, stereotype, art, science.
 This brief  enumeration shows that  multicultural education is relevant to the education  of citizens in civic education, because it  can lead to  many goals civic  education wants to attain as well.  In the third chapter of  this book, we spoke about  citizenship as  both a  unity of  legal status  and as activities of  a citizen, employing  terms articulated by  W. Kymlicka and  W. Norman. Based  on this, it  is obvious civic education can lead to both poles of citizenship. On one side, it  can  develop  the   personal,  individual  attitudes  and consciousness  of  a  citizen,  which  lead  to desired civic activity.  On  the  other,  multicultural  education can help citizens understand  the broader cultural  and social context of citizenship.  Future citizens will  thus acquire data  for their activity  by means of  which they will  create and form the  objective  conditions  of   their  own  existence  while respecting existing conditions appropriately.67
Multicultural education seems to be a full-value component of civic education because (as  proven by a comparison of the key words) part of its contents  is very close to it and many of its topics are identical. They can proceed to their common goals,  because  multicultural  education  attains  the basic objectives  of  civic  education.  Let  us  study further how aesthetic  education  is  related  to  the  goals  and themes mentioned above. I will point to possible ways of cooperation between  aesthetics,  art,  aesthetic  education and cultural education   with  civic   education.  Their   cooperation  is necessary if  civic education is not  to neglect its cultural dimension.

39)  Jazykovedný  ústav  Ľudovíta  Štúra,  Historický slovník slovenského jazyka (Bratislava: Veda, 1991-1992)
40) Josef  Pražák and František  Novotný and Josef  Sedláček, Latinsko-český slovník (Praha: SPN, 1980)
41)   Merriam-Webster's  Collegiate   Dictionary,  10th   ed. (Springfield, Mass.: Merriam Webster Inc., 1993)
42)  Jean  Picoche,  Dictionnaire  etymologique  du  Francais (Paris: Le Robert, 1983)
43)  A.  Preobrazhensky,   Etomologichesky  slovar'  russkogo yazyka (Moskva: GIINS, 1958)
44)  Vladislav  Machek,  Etymologický  slovník jazyka českého a slovenského (Praha: Nakladatelství ČSAV, 1957)
45) Merriam-Webster's
46) It  is necessary to  remind the reader  of the fact  that through the  meaning of the  word mešťania/citizens/burgesses the   above-mentioned   words   are   also   related  to  the self-government    of    ancient     towns/cities    -    the municipalities/mestské rady.
47) Ľudovít Lupták, Občianska spoločnosť (Bratislava: PdF UK, 1995), passim
48)  Jaroslav Jokl,  Úvod k  občanské nauce  (Praha:Hejda and Tuček, 1922), 36
49)  In different  words, the  political party  decided these matters through state adminitration.
50) Paying  attention and responsibility belong  to key words describing  the  "good  society."  Cf.  Robert  N. Bellah and Richard Madsen  and William M. Sullivan  and Ann Swindler and Steven M. Tipton, The Good  Society (New York: Vintage Books, 1992), 283 and passim
51) Cf. Charles  N. Quigley et al., CIVITAS:  A Framework for Civic  Education (Calabas,  CA: Center  for Civic  Education, 1991), 131
52) Ľudovít Lupták, 11
53) Charles N. Quiley et al., 77-78
54) Will  Kymlicka and Wayne Norman,  "Return of the Citizen: A Survey of  Recent Works on  Citizenship Theory, Ethics  104 (Jan. 1994): 353
55) Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman, 353
56) By the  development of cultural tradition we  do not mean looking back to the past. We  mean going ahead and relying on everything that has been achieved in a particular culture.
57)  We do  not tackle  here the  criteria for distinguishing them because  they are not important  at the moment. However, the creation  of similar criteria should  not be neglected so that  the  term  'protection'  could  be  applied also to the 'wider' community.  That will render  impossible the reversal of the  process of protecting  one culture to  the process of liquidating others.
58)  In  the  ideal  situation  it  also  means  the  will to cooperate.
59)  In no  case does  it mean  ideological indoctrination to which it  is usually reduced especially  in authoritative and totalitarian political systems.
60)  Miron  Zelina,  Stratégie  a  metódy  rozvoja  osobnosti dieťaťa (Bratislava: IRIS, 1994), 15
61)  We  have  also  employed  the  model  created by Noel E. Boulting and based on the analysis of Hobbes' Leviathan. Noel E.   Boulting,   "Conception   of   Human   Action   and  the Justification of Value Claims," Inquiries into Values. Ed. S. H. Lee (Edwin Mellen Press, 1988), 173-193
62) Cf.Charles N. Quigley et al., op. cit.
63)  Though we  here draw  on Peter  McLaren's book  Critical Pedagogy and  Predatory Culture (New  York: Routledge, 1995), especially on  the chapter on "White  Terror and Oppositional Agency:   Towards  a   Critical  Multiculturalism",   similar thoughts can also be found in other books by him.
64) Will Kymlicka and Wayne Norman, 370
65)  Antonio Perotti,  The case  for intercultural education. (Strasbourg: Council of Europe Press, 1994), 23
66)  The   Centre  for  Citizenship   Studies  in  Education, Education  for Citizenship.  Bibliography and  Resource Guide (Leicester: University of Leicester, n. d.), 7-8
67) By the adequate respect we  mean being aware of the level up to which it is inevitable to respect the living conditions of today, then level when it is not necessary, and after that whether, how and when to change them. It is a kind of respect which  is  built  on  knowledge;  it  sometimes even contains disrespect  for existing  conditions, which  is nothing  else than readiness for bringing about a change.